Archive for the ‘Child Abuse’ Category
Watch Out for the Kids You Know
April 13, 2010
Child abuse signs are identifiable
Dr. Alisa Hideg
The Spokesman-Review
April is National Child Abuse Prevention Month. One focus this month is the emphasis on awareness of child abuse and neglect and their impact on children.
Parents and other caregivers provide children with their first understanding of themselves. Children learn self-acceptance, love, security and curiosity in an environment that nurtures growth and development.
Infants and toddlers depend on having a secure emotional attachment to an adult on whom they know they can depend for physical and emotional needs.
Children who do not have this or are exposed to violence, neglect or parental substance abuse are at risk for mental health problems. Nationally, one-third of 2- to 5-year-olds in child welfare need mental health services.
As a physician and foster parent, I am required by law to file a report with the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services if I suspect a child is being abused or neglected.
Everyone would like to think they would do their best to protect a child, but perhaps you would not be confident enough in your ability to recognize abuse and neglect, or you might be concerned about how your report might affect the child’s caregiver.
Here are some general signs of child abuse and neglect:
- Showing sudden changes in behavior or school performance.
- Not receiving help for physical or medical problems brought to the parents’ attention.
- Having learning problems (or difficulty concentrating) that cannot be attributed to specific physical or psychological causes.
- Being always watchful, as though preparing for something bad to happen.
- Lacking adult supervision.
- Being overly compliant, passive or withdrawn.
- Coming to school or other activities early, staying late and not wanting to go home.
You may also see things that are specific to physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse or emotional abuse. Some abused or neglected children look and act like normal kids, but you may notice the behavior of the adult who is harming the child or something about how the adult and child interact with each other.
A good place on the Internet to find guidance for recognizing child abuse is dshs.wa.gov. Once there, click on “What is Abuse?” on the right-hand side of the page.
You can also call the Childhelp® National Child Abuse Hotline at 800-4-A-CHILD (800-422-4453) and push “1” to ask questions about child abuse and neglect.
If you do believe you have seen signs of child abuse or neglect, call Washington state’s toll-free, 24/7 hotline at (866) ENDHARM (866-363-4276). They will connect you to the appropriate local Department of Social and Health Services office so that you can report suspected child abuse or neglect.
Once a report has been made, Child Protective Services will determine if the report meets the criteria for investigation. If it does, CPS will determine whether the child is in imminent danger, who is responsible and what actions are appropriate to protect the child from further harm.
Intervention by CPS does not automatically mean that a child will be removed from the home. It may be determined that home support specialist services; day care; financial and employment assistance; parent aides; mental health services (for parents and children); parenting classes and/or family preservation services will be the most beneficial response for the child and the family.
Reports not meeting the Washington state law definition of child abuse or neglect are not investigated further. However, they are kept on file and may be referred to in the future if there are further reports submitted about a given child.
Our Kids: Our Business is a local movement focusing on children in our community by uniting social services, nonprofits, businesses and the media. This movement’s symbol is the pinwheel and you will see them around town this month.
Protecting children is everyone’s business, and reporting suspected abuse or neglect can save a child’s life.
Learn the signs of child abuse and neglect. Take a child seriously if he or she tells you about abuse or neglect. Report any known or suspected incidents. We can all make a difference in the lives of children in our community and we all need to take the responsibility to do so.
Dr. Alisa Hideg is a family medicine physician at Group Health’s Riverfront Medical Center in Spokane.
The article is available here.
Recognizing and Preventing Child Abuse & Neglect
Child abuse is more than bruises and broken bones. While physical abuse might be the most visible sign, other types of abuse, such as emotional abuse or child neglect, also leave deep, long lasting scars. Some signs of child abuse are subtler than others. However, by learning common types of abuse and what you can do, you can make a huge difference in a child’s life. The earlier abused children get help, the greater chance they have to heal from their abuse and not perpetuate the cycle. Learn the signs and symptoms of child abuse and help break the cycle, finding out where to get help for the children and their caregivers. While physical abuse is shocking due to the scars it leaves, not all child abuse is as obvious. Ignoring children’s needs, putting them in unsupervised, dangerous situations, or making a child feel worthless or stupid are also child abuse. Regardless of the type of child abuse, the result is serious emotional harm.
Myths and facts about child abuse and neglect
MYTH #1: It’s only abuse if it’s violent.
Fact: Physical abuse is just one type of child abuse. Neglect and emotional abuse can be just as damaging, and since they are more subtle, others are less likely to intervene. .
MYTH #2: Only bad people abuse their children.
Fact: While it’s easy to say that only “bad people” abuse their children, it’s not always so black and white. Not all abusers are intentionally harming their children. Many have been victims of abuse themselves, and don’t know any other way to parent. Others may be struggling with mental health issues or a substance abuse problem.
MYTH #3: Child abuse doesn’t happen in “good” families.
Fact: Child abuse doesn’t only happen in poor families or bad neighborhoods. It crosses all racial, economic, and cultural lines. Sometimes, families who seem to have it all from the outside are hiding a different story behind closed doors.
MYTH #4: Most child abusers are strangers.
Fact: While abuse by strangers does happen, most abusers are family members or others close to the family
MYTH #5: Abused children always grow up to be abusers.
Fact: It is true that abused children are more likely to repeat the cycle as adults, unconsciously repeating what they experienced as children. On the other hand, many adult survivors of child abuse have a strong motivation to protect their children against what they went through and become excellent parents.
Effects of child abuse and neglect
All types of child abuse and neglect leave lasting scars. Some of these scars might be physical, but emotional scarring has long lasting effects throughout life, damaging a child’s sense of self, ability to have healthy relationships, and ability to function at home, at work and at school. Some effects include:
- Lack of trust and relationship difficulties. If you can’t trust your parents, who can you trust? Abuse by a primary caregiver damages the most fundamental relationship as a child—that you will safely, reliably get your physical and emotional needs met by the person who is responsible for your care. Without this base, it is very difficult to learn to trust people or know who is trustworthy. This can lead to difficulty maintaining relationships due to fear of being controlled or abused. It can also lead to unhealthy relationships because the adult doesn’t know what a good relationship is.
- Core feelings of being “worthless” or “damaged.” If you’ve
been told over and over again as a child that you are stupid or no good, it is very difficult to overcome these core feelings. You may experience them as reality. Adults may not strive for more education, or settle for a job that may not pay enough, because they don’t believe they can do it or are worth more. Sexual abuse survivors, with the stigma and shame surrounding the abuse, often especially struggle with a feeling of being damaged. - Trouble regulating emotions. Abused children cannot express emotions safely. As a result, the emotions get stuffed down, coming out in unexpected ways. Adult survivors of child abuse can struggle with unexplained anxiety, depression, or anger. They may turn to alcohol or drugs to numb out the painful feelings.
Types of child abuse
There are several types of child abuse, but the core element that ties them together is the emotional effect on the child. Children need predictability, structure, clear boundaries, and the knowledge that their parents are looking out for their safety. Abused children cannot predict how their parents will act. Their world is an unpredictable, frightening place with no rules. Whether the abuse is a slap, a harsh comment, stony silence, or not knowing if there will be dinner on the table tonight, the end result is a child that feel unsafe, uncared for, and alone.
Emotional child abuse
Sticks and stones may break my bones but words will never hurt me? Contrary to this old saying, emotional abuse can severely damage a child’s mental health or social development, leaving lifelong psychological scars. Examples of emotional child abuse include:
- Constant belittling, shaming, and humiliating a child
- Calling names and making negative comparisons to others
- Telling a child he or she is “no good,” “worthless,” “bad,” or “a mistake.”
- Frequent yelling, threatening, or bullying.
- Ignoring or rejecting a child as punishment, giving him or her the silent treatment.
- Limited physical contact with the child—no hugs, kisses, or other signs of affection.
- Exposing the child to violence or the abuse of others, whether it be the abuse of a parent, a sibling, or even a pet.
Child neglect
Child neglect—a very common type of child abuse—is a pattern of failing to provide for a child’s basic needs, whether it be adequate food, clothing, hygiene, or supervision. Child neglect is not always easy to spot. Sometimes, a parent might become physically or mentally unable to care for a child, such as with a serious injury, untreated depression, or anxiety. Other times, alcohol or drug abuse may seriously impair judgment and the ability to keep a child safe.
Older children might not show outward signs of neglect, becoming used to presenting a competent face to the outside world, and even taking on the role of the parent. But at the end of the day, neglected children are not getting their physical and emotional needs met.
Physical child abuse
Physical abuse involves physical harm or injury to the child. It may be the result of a deliberate attempt to hurt the child, but not always. It can also result from severe discipline, such as using a belt on a child, or physical punishment that is inappropriate to the child’s age or physical condition.
Many physically abusive parents and caregivers insist that their actions are simply forms of discipline—ways to make children learn to behave. But there is a big difference between using physical punishment to discipline and physical abuse. The point of disciplining children is to teach them right from wrong, not to make them live in fear.
Physical abuse vs. Discipline
In physical abuse, unlike physical forms of discipline, the following elements are present:
- Unpredictability. The child never knows what is going to set the parent off. There are no clear boundaries or rules. The child is constantly walking on eggshells, never sure what behavior will trigger a physical assault.
- Lashing out in anger. Physically abusive parents act out of anger and the desire to assert control, not the motivation to lovingly teach the child. The angrier the parent, the more intense the abuse.
- Using fear to control behavior. Parents who are physically abusive may believe that their children need to fear them in order to behave, so they use physical abuse to “keep their child in line.” However, what children are really learning is how to avoid being hit, not how to behave or grow as individuals.
Child sexual abuse: A hidden type of abuse
Child sexual abuse is an especially complicated form of abuse because of its layers of guilt and shame. It’s important to recognize that sexual abuse doesn’t always involve body contact. Exposing a child to sexual situations or material is sexually abusive, whether or not touching is involved.
While news stories of sexual predators are scary, what is even more frightening is that sexual abuse usually occurs at the hands of someone the child knows and should be able to trust—most often close relatives. And contrary to what many believe, it’s not just girls who are at risk. Boys and girls both suffer from sexual abuse. In fact, sexual abuse of boys may be underreported due to shame and stigma.
Aside from the physical damage that sexual abuse can cause, the emotional component is powerful and far-reaching. Sexually abused children are tormented by shame and guilt. They may feel that they are responsible for the abuse or somehow brought it upon themselves. This can lead to self-loathing and sexual problems as they grow older—often either excessive promiscuity or an inability to have intimate relations.
The shame of sexual abuse makes it very difficult for children to come forward. They may worry that others won’t believe them, will be angry with them, or that it will split their family apart. Because of these difficulties, false accusations of sexual abuse are not common, so if a child confides in you, take him or her seriously. Don’t turn a blind eye!
Warning signs of child abuse and neglect
The earlier child abuse is caught, the better the chance of recovery and appropriate treatment for the child. Child abuse is not always obvious. By learning some of the common warning signs of child abuse and neglect, you can catch the problem as early as possible and get both the child and the abuser the help that they need.
Of course, just because you see a warning sign doesn’t automatically mean a child is being abused. It’s important to dig deeper, looking for a pattern of abusive behavior and warning signs, if you notice something off.
Warning signs of emotional abuse in children
- Excessively withdrawn, fearful, or anxious about doing something wrong.
- Shows extremes in behavior (extremely compliant or extremely demanding; extremely passive or extremely aggressive).
- Doesn’t seem to be attached to the parent or caregiver.
- Acts either inappropriately adult (taking care of other children) or inappropriately infantile (rocking, thumb-sucking, tantruming).
Warning signs of physical abuse in children
- Frequent injuries or unexplained bruises, welts, or cuts.
- Is always watchful and “on alert,” as if waiting for something bad to happen.
- Injuries appear to have a pattern such as marks from a hand or belt.
- Shies away from touch, flinches at sudden movements, or seems afraid to go home.
- Wears inappropriate clothing to cover up injuries, such as long-sleeved shirts on hot days.
Warning signs of neglect in children
- Clothes are ill-fitting, filthy, or inappropriate for the weather.
- Hygiene is consistently bad (unbathed, matted and unwashed hair, noticeable body odor).
- Untreated illnesses and physical injuries.
- Is frequently unsupervised or left alone or allowed to play in unsafe situations and environments.
- Is frequently late or missing from school.
Warning signs of sexual abuse in children
- Trouble walking or sitting.
- Displays knowledge or interest in sexual acts inappropriate to his or her age, or even seductive behavior.
- Makes strong efforts to avoid a specific person, without an obvious reason.
- Doesn’t want to change clothes in front of others or participate in physical activities.
- An STD or pregnancy, especially under the age of 14.
- Runs away from home.
Risk factors for child abuse and neglect
While child abuse and neglect occurs in all types of families—even in those that look happy from the outside—children are at a much greater risk in certain situations.
- Domestic violence. Witnessing domestic violence is terrifying to children and emotionally abusive. Even if the mother does her best to protect her children and keeps them from being physically abused, the situation is still extremely damaging. If you or a loved one is in an abusive relationships, getting out is the best thing for protecting the children.
- Alcohol and drug abuse. Living with an alcoholic or addict is very difficult for children and can easily lead to abuse and neglect. Parents who are drunk or high are unable to care for their children, make good parenting decisions, and control often-dangerous impulses. Substance abuse also commonly leads to physical abuse.
- Untreated mental illness. Parents who suffering from depression, an anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, or another mental illness have trouble taking care of themselves, much less their children. A mentally ill or traumatized parent may be distant and withdrawn from his or her children, or quick to anger without understanding why. Treatment for the caregiver means better care for the children.
- Lack of parenting skills. Some caregivers never learned the skills necessary for good parenting. Teen parents, for example, might have unrealistic expectations about how much care babies and small children need. Or parents who where themselves victims of child abuse may only know how to raise their children the way they were raised. In such cases, parenting classes, therapy, and caregiver support groups are great resources for learning better parenting skills.
- Stress and lack of support. Parenting can be a very time-intensive, difficult job, especially if you’re raising children without support from family, friends, or the community or you’re dealing with relationship problems or financial difficulties. Caring for a child with a disability, special needs, or difficult behaviors is also a challenge. It’s important to get the support you need, so you are emotionally and physically able to support your child.
Recognizing abusive behavior in yourself
o you see yourself in some of these descriptions, painful as it may be? Do you feel angry and frustrated and don’t know where to turn? Raising children is one of life’s greatest challenges and can trigger anger and frustration in the most even tempered. If you grew up in a household where screaming and shouting or violence was the norm, you may not know any other way to raise your kids.
Recognizing that you have a problem is the biggest step to getting help. If you yourself were raised in an abusive situation, that can be extremely difficult. Children experience their world as normal. It may have been normal in your family to be slapped or pushed for little to no reason, or that mother was too drunk to cook dinner. It may have been normal for your parents to call you stupid, clumsy, or worthless. Or it may have been normal to watch your mother get beaten up by your father.
It is only as adults that we have the perspective to step back and take a hard look at what is normal and what is abusive. Read the above sections on the types of abuse and warning signs. Do any of those ring a bell for you now? Or from when you were a child? The following is a list of warning signs that you may be crossing the line into abuse:
- You can’t stop the anger. What starts as a swat on the backside may turn into multiple hits getting harder and harder. You may shake your child harder and harder and finally throw him or her down. You find yourself screaming louder and louder and can’t stop yourself.
- You feel emotionally disconnected from your child. You may feel so overwhelmed that you don’t want anything to do with your child. Day after day, you just want to be left alone and for your child to be quiet.
- Meeting the daily needs of your child seems impossible. While everyone struggles with balancing dressing, feeding, and getting kids to school or other activities, if you continually can’t manage to do it, it’s a sign that something might be wrong.
- Other people have expressed concern. It may be easy to bristle at other people expressing concern. However, consider carefully what they have to say. Are the words coming from someone you normally respect and trust? Denial is not an uncommon reaction.
Breaking the cycle of child abuse
If you have a history of child abuse, having your own children can trigger strong memories and feelings that you may have repressed. This may happen when a child is born, or at later ages when you remember specific abuse to you. You may be shocked and overwhelmed by your anger, and feel like you can’t control it. But you can learn new ways to manage your emotions and break your old patterns.
Remember, you are the most important person in your child’s world. It’s worth the effort to make a change, and you don’t have to go it alone. Help and support are available.
Tips for changing your reactions
- Learn what is age appropriate and what is not. Having realistic expectations of what children can handle at certain ages will help you avoid frustration and anger at normal child behavior. For example, newborns are not going to sleep through the night without a peep, and toddlers are not going to be able to sit quietly for extended periods of time.
- Develop new parenting skills. While learning to control your emotions is critical, you also need a game plan of what you are going to do instead. Start by learning appropriate discipline techniques and how to set clear boundaries for your children. Parenting classes, books, and seminars are a way to get this information. You can also turn to other parents for tips and advice.
- Take care of yourself. If you are not getting enough rest and support or you’re feeling overwhelmed, you are much more likely to succumb to anger. Sleep deprivation, common in parents of young children, adds to moodiness and irritability—exactly what you are trying to avoid.
- Get professional help. Breaking the cycle of abuse can be very difficult if the patterns are strongly entrenched. If you can’t seem to stop yourself no matter how hard you try, it’s time to get help, be it therapy, parenting classes, or other interventions. Your children will thank you for it.
- Learn how you can get your emotions under control. The first step to getting your emotions under control is realizing that they are there. If you were abused as a child, you may have an especially difficult time getting in touch with your range of emotions. You may have had to deny or repress them as a child, and now they spill out without your control. For a step by step process on how you can develop your emotional intelligence, visit EQ Central.
Helping an abused or neglected child
What should you do if you suspect that a child has been abused? How do you approach him or her? Or what if a child comes to you? It’s normal to feel a little overwhelmed and confused in this situation. Child abuse is a difficult subject that can be hard to accept and even harder to talk about.
Just remember, you can make a tremendous difference in the life of an abused child, especially if you take steps to stop the abuse early. When talking with an abused child, the best thing you can provide is calm reassurance and unconditional support. Let your actions speak for you if you’re having trouble finding the words. Remember that talking about the abuse may be very difficult for the child. It’s your job to reassure the child and provide whatever help you can.
ips for talking to an abused child
- Avoid denial and remain calm. A common reaction to news as unpleasant and shocking as child abuse is denial. However, if you display denial to a child, or show shock or disgust at what they are saying, the child may be afraid to continue and will shut down. As hard as it may be, remain as calm and reassuring as you can.
- Don’t interrogate. Let the child explain to you in his or her own words what happened, but don’t interrogate the child or ask leading questions. This may confuse and fluster the child and make it harder for them to continue their story.
- Reassure the child that they did nothing wrong. It takes a lot for a child to come forward about abuse. Reassure him or her that you take what is said seriously, and that it is not the child’s fault.
- Safety comes first. If you feel that your safety or the safety of the child would be threatened if you try to intervene, leave it to the professionals. You may be able to provide more support later after the initial professional intervention.
Reporting child abuse and neglect
If you suspect a child is being abused, it’s critical to get them the help he or she needs. Reporting child abuse seems so official. Many people are reluctant to get involved in other families’ lives. Understanding some of the myths behind reporting may help put your mind at ease if you need to report child abuse:
- I don’t want to interfere in someone else’s family. The effects of child abuse are lifelong, affecting future relationships, self-esteem, and sadly putting even more children at risk of abuse as the cycle continues. Help break the cycle of child abuse.
- What if I break up someone’s home? The priority in child protective services is keeping children in the home. A child abuse report does not mean a child is automatically removed from the home – unless the child is clearly in danger. Support such as parenting classes, anger management or other resources may be offered first to parents if safe for the child.
- They will know it was me who called. Reporting is anonymous. In most states, you do not have to give your name when you report child abuse. The child abuser cannot find out who made the report of child abuse.
- It won’t make a difference what I have to say. If you have a gut feeling that something is wrong, it is better to be safe than sorry. Even if you don’t see the whole picture, others may have noticed as well, and a pattern can help identify child abuse that might have otherwise slipped through the cracks.
To get help or report abuse, call the Childhelp National Child Abuse Hotline at 1-800-4-A-CHILD (1-800-422-4453).
Source: Help Guide.org
Playing the Psychologist: Causes of Anxiety Disorders
unning head: THE ETIOLOGY OF ANXIETY DISORDERS
The Etiology of Anxiety Disorders: A Biological, Cognitive, and Experiential Perspective
Kyler Hood
Abstract
This paper explains the diagnosis of anxiety disorders and examines biological, cognitive, and experiential studies pertinent to the exploration of anxiety disorders. Genetic predisposition, increased brain activation to nonthreatening situations, negative interpretation bias, positive bias, bullying, and lack of social support are all aspects related to the formation of anxiety disorders. Research suggests that increased brain activation to nonthreatening social stimuli along with a prevalent negative interpretation bias, reduced positive interpretation bias, a genetic predisposition, increased bullying in childhood, and lack of social support all contribute to the formation of anxiety disorders. Future studies on the role of these multiple factors in anxiety disorders will need to be conducted concurrently (if possible) and individually, so interactions can be assessed for causality and correlation more confidently.
The Etiology of Anxiety Disorders: A Biological, Cognitive, and Experiential Perspective
People suffering from anxiety disorders typically exhibit symptoms of anxiety and/or excessive worrying that negatively affects all levels of everyday interactions (Friedman, 2001). Greenberg et al. (1999) found that millions of adults have been diagnosed with some sort of anxiety disorder, which costs the United States over 42 billion dollars annually . Anxiety disorders clearly present a problem to the American populace, so understanding the nature and cause of anxiety disorders is crucial for preventing and treating anxiety disorders. Numerous empirical studies explain the biological, cognitive, and experiential factors that contribute to the creation of anxiety disorders, but few have been able to examine all three as concurrent contributing factors (Mineka & Zinbarg, 2006). In this article, the biological, cognitive, and experiential causes/correlated factors of anxiety disorders will be discussed. When the different types of causes or correlations coexist then an anxiety disorder is more likely to develop. This article also addresses the multiple causal factors in the hope that a greater understanding of the contributing factors that lead to the development of anxiety disorders will lead to greater prevention and treatment for anxiety disorders.
Biological Causal Factors
By comparing participants’ neural responses to facial images showing either anger or no emotion, investigators determined that the amygdala plays a role in the expression of emotions
(Morris, Frith, Perrett, Rowland, Young, Calder, et al., 1996; Straube, Kolassa, Glauer, Mentzel, & Miltner, 2004). More specifically, the amygdala, right insula, and superior temporal sulcus for the most part exhibit a stronger response in participants with anxiety disorder especially in response to angry facial expressions (Morris et al.; Straube et al.). Straube et al. showed that participants with anxiety disorder consistently exhibited pronounced activations in the amygdala, right insula, and superior temporal sulcus, but more replications with a greater sample size are needed to determine how the range and complex interactions affect each of these regions of the brain in participants with an anxiety disorder.
Genetic Factors
Hettema, Prescott, Myers, Neale, and Kendler (2005) found that two genetic components make individuals more likely to develop an anxiety disorder from the category of generalized and panic anxiety (including agoraphobia) not phobias. These genetic factors do not differ as causal factors between men and women. Correlations exist between specific environmental factors to a specific anxiety disorder and some general correlations exist between environmental factors across several disorders (Hettema et al.).
Psychophysiological Factors
Hermann, Ziegler, Birbaumer, and Flor (2002) compared people suffering from social phobia to healthy control participants by examining each group’s different responses to unpleasant conditioning with two expressionless faces being conditioned stimuli and an unpleasant smell as an unconditioned stimulus. The investigators analyzed various physiological responses of the social phobics versus the healthy control participants in order to ascertain each individual’s conditioned responses to the stimuli. Researchers predicted that people diagnosed with social phobia would show a more pronounced response to the stimuli than the control participants. During habituation to the stimulus, people with social phobia demonstrated higher arousal ratings than the control participants and those people with social phobia did not make a distinction between the positive and negative conditioned stimuli. People suffering from social phobia also exhibited higher arousal ratings to the stimulus and showed a greater corrugator muscle response. The researchers concluded that people afflicted with social phobia are more apt to negatively interpret neutral stimuli (Hermann et al.).
Cognitive Factors
Certain people have a different way of processing events cognitively that seems to contribute to the development of anxiety disorders. Amin, Foa, and Coles (1998) examined negative interpretation bias in participants with generalized social phobia (GSPs) and obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). The researchers hypothesized that the participants with social phobia or OCD would interpret ambiguous experimental scenarios more negatively than the control participants would in the same scenarios. The investigators determined the disorder or phobia groups by having incoming participants take the depression inventory and anxiety depression scales. Amin et al. then had each group fill out questionnaires that asked each group questions concerning how they would respond to various social and nonsocial scenarios. Sample questions like the ones used in the questionnaire were provided with the study and the questions may have a problem with social acceptability bias. The reader can easily see the positive, negative, or neutral mood that is evoked from each response and he/she may want to give a positive response instead of a true to life response. By examining the evidence people with GSPS, Amin et al. found that the data supported the hypothesis that people with anxiety tend to interpret scenarios more negatively especially in social scenarios. The researchers found that OCD participants did not perceive the outcomes of social scenarios as negatively as GSPS participants, but both GSPs and OCD participants interpreted social events more negatively than the control group did as a whole. The GSPs and OCD participants’ negative interpretations serve a microcosm for the negative interpretation bias found within the broader category of anxiety disorders.
In addition to having a negative interpretation bias, participants that later develop anxiety disorders have a dysfunctional positive bias. This conclusion makes the reader wonder if researchers looked at negative interpretation bias with a new perspective and renamed it impaired positive inferential bias. However, Hirsch and Matthews (2000) predicted that participants with social phobia will either continuously construe neutral encounters negatively at the moment of the encounter, or participants with social phobia only judge encounters looking back with a negative viewpoint. Using these hypotheses, the researchers tested for bias by giving the participants from the control and experimental groups lexical word puzzles that gave them information on the biases because of the way each group responded. The investigators found that individuals without anxiety make positive impressions constantly in their mind while people with anxiety disorders do not. Anxious participants also did not process external cues in encounters and typically had early social failures; both of which contributed to later anxiety. Experimenters will need to conduct more replications of this experiment, and other modified forms, however, because the extensive reading tasks required for this experiment may have caused undue stress which would significantly hinder the results of the experiment (Hirsch & Matthews).
Hirsch and Matthews found that positive bias is impaired in people with anxiety disorders, and other researchers found a complex correlation between explicit memory and anxiety disorders. Becker, Roth, Andrich, and Margraf (1999) conducted 2 experiments. In the first experiment, researchers gave participants from three groups words to examine (people came from the generalized anxiety disorder group, the control group or the social phobia group). The investigators gave the participants words related to generalized anxiety disorder, and phobia along with neutral and positive words. The participants rated each word they received according to three categories: personal relevance, excitingness, and pleasantness. Becker et al. found that the participants with generalized anxiety disorder scored the highest (when compared to the social phobia and control group) in psychopathology and also had higher levels of depression. Becker et al. then performed a free recall test that assesses the number of words a participant can remember from a neutral, positive, or disorder specific word category. Becker et al. found that explicit memory for generalized anxiety disorder or social phobia participants did not occur for words associated with anxiety or emotional words indicating that anxious people do not exhibit selective memory.
In experiment two, however, the researchers found evidence supporting the claim that anxious individuals demonstrate a negative selective memory. Becker et al. tested if participants with panic disorder and agoraphobia would selectively recall anxiety related words. The researchers conducted the experiment in a similar fashion as experiment one. Becker et al. found that participants showed a selective memory for disorder specific words. The results of both experiments seem irreconcilable because the first experiment rejected the hypothesis that people with anxiety disorders selectively remember negative stimuli while the second experiment supported it. These concurrent experiments support the idea that selective memory in anxiety disorders may only be related to certain anxiety disorders. However, several replications of these experiments and modified versions of them will need to be conducted to provide more conclusive results.
Although support for a negative selective memory is unclear, researchers found clear support indicating that people with anxiety disorders often avoid social encounters because they view themselves extremely negatively. Voncken, Alden, and Bogels (2006) conducted an experiment in which participants read different vignettes with a main character interacted in 1 of 3 different ways: admitting that he/she is anxious, hiding the anxiety, or continuing indifferently. The participants rated the character’s social interactions positively or negatively and then the participants rated each scenario again as if they were put in as the main character. The researchers found that people with anxiety disorders live by a double standard in which they view others’ behavior more leniently while their own behavior is viewed much stricter and more negatively. Voncken et al. determined that anxious individuals often avoid people in small ways such as no eye contact, or any behavior that will hide their own anxious behavior. This avoidance behavior often leads to more negative outcomes than if the anxious individual would try not to avoid the social situation. People with anxiety disorders believe that stating that they have an anxiety disorder will draw out a negative response from others; however, people usually view being open to discussion about personal issues positively.
Despite the compelling data, the experiment conducted by Voncken et al. contained several limiting factors. The tests for a participant’s response in a particular social assessed the interaction with a written vignette. A written vignette may not accurately describe how an anxious person would actually respond in a real life situation. Furthermore, investigators only studied a small portion of the population of anxious individuals which may not accurately reflect population trends. Only women participated in the experiment, so researchers did not assess gender differences in anxious individuals (Voncken et al.).
Experiential Factors
Social support in adolescence weakly correlates with social anxiety later in life. Casyln, Winter, and Burger (2005) conducted a study using college students and comparing socially anxious individuals with a control group. Students completed a questionnaire assessing past childhood experiences. The investigators found that only a weak correlation between social anxiety and social support in adolescence exists. The directionality of causality between social anxiety and social support was impossible to determine. The sample came only from college students which limited the ability to generalize the results.
In addition to the weak correlation between social support and anxiety, bullying in childhood strongly correlates with depression and anxiety in adulthood. Gladstone, Parker, and Malhi (2006) conducted an experiment in which participants filled out a questionnaire and underwent an interview that asked about past childhood experiences. Gladstone et al. found that several factors contributed to being victims of bullying: shy temperament, sickness, and parents being extremely authoritarian. Bullied children often exhibited high levels of depression and anxiety, but the direction of causality between these factors was impossible to determine. Investigators found a strong relationship between ill-treatment by parents including indifference, being extremely controlling, sexual mistreatment, and bullying in childhood. People with anxiety disorders often exhibited feelings of isolation, sadness, confusion of who they are as a person, and a tendency to leave social situations that could cause or be caused by bullying (Gladstone et al.). The investigators’ experiment may have been limited because participants did not say if they ever acted as bullies themselves and the experiment rested solely on parents’ recall of past events in their child’s bullying experiences (Gladstone et al.).
Conclusions
Anxiety disorders are not caused by any single factor. Anxiety disorders are caused and/or correlated with factors on the biological, cognitive, and experiential levels. On the biological level certain genes predispose people to increased levels of anxiety and depression. The amygdala, right insula, and superior temporal sulcus respond more strongly in people that exhibit anxious symptoms. At the cognitive level, anxious individuals typically interpret situations negatively and they cannot give a situation a positive impression. Anxious individuals seem to selectively remember negative experiences, but the experimental results are mixed and more replications are necessary to confirm that assumption. People with anxiety disorders often avoid social encounters because they are overly self critical and afraid of making an embarrassing mistake. Lack of social support and bullying are strongly related to the development of an anxiety disorder. However, most researchers agree anxiety disorders are not well researched and many more replications examining negative selective memory will need to be conducted to establish if that is a true phenomenon. Many experiments are also needed to explore the causes and correlations of anxiety disorders such as examining participants with past bullying experiences and a negative interpretation bias in comparison with those who have past bullying experiences and no negative interpretation bias (both could develop anxiety disorders or each only a respective group, but either way the results of this study would provide useful data).
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